Endogenous Metabolite; Microbial Metabolite

In abiotic conditions such salt stress, drought stress, high temperature stress, and saline-alkali stress that affect crops like tomatoes, cucumbers, and rice, spermidine hydrochloride is crucial [1].

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb) is a typical cool-season grass that is widely used in turf and pasture. However, high temperature as an abiotic stress seriously affects its utilization. The objective of this study was to explore the effect of spermidine (Spd) on heat stress response of tall fescue. The samples were exposed to 22°C (normal condition) or 44°C (heat stress) for 4 h. The results showed that exogenous Spd partially improved the quality of tall fescue leaves under normal temperature conditions. Nevertheless, after heat stress treatment, exogenous Spd significantly decreased the electrolyte leakage of tall fescue leaves. Spd also profoundly reduced the H2O2 and O2⋅- content and increased antioxidant enzymes activities. In addition, PAs can also regulate antioxidant enzymes activities including SOD, POD, and APX which could help to scavenge ROS. Moreover, application of Spd could also remarkably increase the chlorophyll content and had a positive effect on the chlorophyll α fluorescence transients under high temperature. The Spd reagent enhanced the performance of photosystem II (PSII) as observed by the JIP-test. Under heat stress, the Spd profoundly improved the partial potentials at the steps of energy bifurcations (PIABS and PItotal) and the quantum yields and efficiencies (φP0, δR0, φR0, and γRC). Exogenous Spd could also reduce the specific energy fluxes per QA- reducing PSII reaction center (RC) (TP0/RC and ET0/RC). Additionally, exogenous Spd improved the expression level of psbA and psbB, which encoded the proteins of PSII core reaction center complex. We infer that PAs can stabilize the structure of nucleic acids and protect RNA from the degradation of ribonuclease. In brief, our study indicates that exogenous Spd enhances the heat tolerance of tall fescue by maintaining cell membrane stability, increasing antioxidant enzymes activities, improving PSII, and relevant gene expression.[1]

Crude Enzyme Extraction[1]
For enzyme extracts, a 0.2 g of leaves powder with liquid nitrogen was immersed in 4 mL phosphate buffer (150 mM, pH 7.0) precooled at 4°C homogenized with 0.2 M Na2HPO4 and 0.2 M NaH2PO4. Then, the homogenate was centrifuged at 15,000 × g at 4°C for 30 min. Finally, the supernatant was collected and stored at 4°C to determine enzyme activities.[1]

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Antioxidant Enzyme Activity[1]
For the SOD activity assay, a 0.1 mL enzyme extract was added into 2.9 mL solution plus 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), 1.125 mM nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT), 60 μM riboflavin, 195 mM methionine and 3 μM ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA). Then, the solution was incubated under 4000 lx irradiance for 30 min. The change of absorbance at 560 nm was recorded with 3 mL of solution without enzyme extract as the control. One unit of SOD activity was defined as the inhibition of NBT reduction by 50%.[1]
The POD activity was measured based on the method described by Fan et al. (2014). In brief, a 50 μL enzyme extract was added into 2.95 mL solution containing 0.075% H2O2, 0.1 M sodium acetate-acetic buffer (pH 5.0), 0.25 mL guaiacol (dissolved in 50% ethanol solution). Then we recorded the absorbance changes at 460 nm per minute for 3 min. One unit POD activity is defined as the increase in absorbance per minute.[1]
The APX activity was measured using Plant APX Elisa Kit.[1]

Evaluation of the Optimum Spd Concentration[1]
To determine the adequate effective spermidine (Spd) concentration for alleviating heat stress, we performed a preliminary experiment by applying different concentration Spd. The concentration of Spd (0, 0.5, 1, and 2 mM) were chosen preliminarily according to the Mostofa experiment on rice (Mostofa et al., 2014). Subsequently, we selected the optimum concentration (0.5 mM) by comparing the fluorescence transients after heat stress 4 h (Figure ​Figure11). Figure ​Figure11 shows the differential changes in chlorophyll fluorescence transients after treatment with different concentration of Spd under heat stress. A 0.5 mM of Spd had the positive impact on photosynthesis by improving FJ, FI, and FP.

Metabolism / Metabolites
Uremic toxins tend to accumulate in the blood either through dietary excess or through poor filtration by the kidneys. Most uremic toxins are metabolic waste products and are normally excreted in the urine or feces.

Toxicity Summary
Uremic toxins such as spermidine are actively transported into the kidneys via organic ion transporters (especially OAT3). Increased levels of uremic toxins can stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species. This seems to be mediated by the direct binding or inhibition by uremic toxins of the enzyme NADPH oxidase (especially NOX4 which is abundant in the kidneys and heart) (A7868). Reactive oxygen species can induce several different DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) which are involved in the silencing of a protein known as KLOTHO. KLOTHO has been identified as having important roles in anti-aging, mineral metabolism, and vitamin D metabolism. A number of studies have indicated that KLOTHO mRNA and protein levels are reduced during acute or chronic kidney diseases in response to high local levels of reactive oxygen species (A7869). A7868: Schulz AM, Terne C, Jankowski V, Cohen G, Schaefer M, Boehringer F, Tepel M, Kunkel D, Zidek W, Jankowski J: Modulation of NADPH oxidase activity by known uraemic retention solutes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2014 Aug;44(8):802-11. doi: 10.1111/eci.12297. PMID:25041433

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Health Effects
Chronic exposure to uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.

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Exposure Routes: Endogenous, Ingestion, Dermal (contact)

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Symptoms
As a uremic toxin, this compound can cause uremic syndrome. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma. Abnormal bleeding, such as bleeding spontaneously or profusely from a very minor injury can also occur. Heart problems, such as an irregular heartbeat, inflammation in the sac that surrounds the heart (pericarditis), and increased pressure on the heart can be seen in patients with uremic syndrome. Shortness of breath from fluid buildup in the space between the lungs and the chest wall (pleural effusion) can also be present.

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Treatment
Kidney dialysis is usually needed to relieve the symptoms of uremic syndrome until normal kidney function can be restored.

[1]. The Alleviation of Heat Damage to Photosystem II and Enzymatic Antioxidants by Exogenous Spermidine in Tall Fescue. Front Plant Sci. 2017 Oct 12;8:1747.

See also: Spermidine (annotation moved to).

C7H22CL3N3

254.6287

253.087

C, 33.02; H, 8.71; Cl, 41.77; N, 16.50

334-50-9

334-50-9 (3HCl); 124-20-9

9539

Typically exists as White to off-white solid at room temperature

0.906 g/cm3

246.6ºC at 760 mmHg

257-259 °C(lit.)

118.1ºC

3.861

6

3

7

13

56.8

0

Cl[H].Cl[H].Cl[H].N([H])(C([H])([H])C([H])([H])C([H])([H])N([H])[H])C([H])([H])C([H])([H])C([H])([H])C([H])([H])N([H])[H]

LCNBIHVSOPXFMR-UHFFFAOYSA-N

InChI=1S/C7H19N3.3ClH/c8-4-1-2-6-10-7-3-5-9;;;/h10H,1-9H2;3*1H

N'-(3-aminopropyl)butane-1,4-diamine;trihydrochloride

Spermidine trihydrochloride; 334-50-9; Spermidine hydrochloride; N1-(3-Aminopropyl)butane-1,4-diamine trihydrochloride; N-(3-Aminopropyl)-1,4-butanediamine trihydrochloride; Spermidine HCl; Spermidine (trihydrochloride); MFCD00012918;

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Note: Please store this product in a sealed and protected environment (e.g. under nitrogen), avoid exposure to moisture.

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

H2O : ~250 mg/mL (~981.82 mM)

Solubility in Formulation 1: 100 mg/mL (392.73 mM) in PBS (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution; with sonication.

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 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)